Robots Unlimited:
Life in a Virtual Age
by David Levy

Full Bibliography

The bibliography in the book covers all the
references from which quotations are taken, which appear with a numbered
reference in square brackets in the text.

The full bibliography on which this book is based is far too extensive to be
included in the book and has therefore been made available here.

Within each chapter, the references are sorted by topic in conjunction with
the section headings. (Square-bracket references remain for those sources quoted
in the text.)

There is also an alphabetized
version of the bibliography.

Chapter 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Chapter 1: Early History—Logic, Games and Speech

[1] Semantic Information Processing. (Ed.) Marvin Minsky. MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1968.

Early Logic Machines

Semantic Information Processing. (Ed.) Marvin Minsky. MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1968.

Ramon Llull

“The Ars Magna of Ramon Llull”. Martin Gardner. In Logic Machines and
Diagrams (2nd Edition), The Harvester Press, Brighton, U.K., 1982,
pp. 1–27.

Two other sources on the life of Ramon Llull (whose name is sometimes spelled
Lull), both favourably disposed towards Llull’s achievements, are available on
the Internet: “What Was Llull Up to?” Anthony Bonner, presented at the Honorary
Session of ARTS 1997 at Palma de Mallorca, available at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5284/compbon.html
and “Llull as Computer Scientist”, Ton Sales, Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya, Barcelona, available at http://www.geocities.com/llull_brazil/compsale.html.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

[2] Die Philosophischen Schriften von Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz
vol. VII. (Ed.)C Gernardt. Republished by George Olms, Hildesheim, 1961.
Translated by Frank Copley.

The Stanhope Demonstrator

“The Stanhope Demonstrator”. Robert Harley. Mind, vol. IV,
1879, pp. 192–210.

Charles Babbage

How Computers Play Chess. David Levy and Monty Newborn. Computer
Science Press, New York, 1991.

Nineteenth-Century Logic Machines

[3] The Principles of Science: A Treatise of Knowledge and Scientific
Method. William Stanley Jevons. Dover Publications, New York, 1958.
(Originally published in 1874.)

“W. Stanley Jevons, Allan Marquand, and the Origins of Digital Computing”.
George Buck and Stephen Hunka. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing,
vol. 21, no. 4, 1999, pp. 21–27.

[4] Introductory note in Thomas Albert Sebeok, The Play of
Musement. Max Fisch.Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1981.

“On the Mechanical Performance of Logical Inference”. William Jevons.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. 160, 1870,
pp. 497–518.

Electrical Logic Machines

Benjamin Burack

“An Electrical Logic Machine”. Benjamin Burack, Science,
vol. 109, 17 June 1949, p. 610.

“The Forgotten ‘Thinking’ Machine of Professor Alexander N. Shchukarev”.
Boris Malinovsky. Available at http://www.icfcst.kiev.ua/museum/Shchukarev.html.

“The First Russian Logic Machines”. Gelliy Povarov, translated by Alexander
Nitussov. In Computing in Russia, (Eds.) Georg Trogenmann, Alexander
Nitussov and Wolfgang Ernst, Vieweg, Wiesbaden, 2001.

Logica Formale dedotta dalla considerzione di modelli meccanici.
Annibale Pastore. Bocca, Turin, 1906.

“Logic Machine”. Charles Macaulay. US Patent number 1,079,504, 25 November
1913. Obtainable online at http://gb.espacenet.com/ and several other
patent sites.

Early Games Machines

Von Kempelen’s Chess Automaton

Chess and Computers. David Levy. Batsford, London, 1976.

Torres y Quevedo’s Chess Endgame Machine

“Essais sur L’Automatique. Sa définition. Etendue threoique de ses
Applications.” Leonardo Torres y Quevedo. Revue de l’Academie des Sciences
de Madrid, 1914. Reprinted in Origins of Digital Computers: Selected
Papers, (Ed.) B. Randell, Springer Verlag, 1973.

The translation of Vigneron’s article “Les Automates” from La
Nature, no. 2142, 13th June 1914, pp. 56–61 by John
Littlewood. In Chess and Computers. David Levy, Batsford, London, 1976,
pp. 13–23.

The Nimotron

“Machine to Play the Game of Nim”. Edward Condon, Gerald Towney and Willard
Derr. US Patent number 2,215,544, 24 September 1940. Obtainable online at http://gb.espacenet.com/ and several other
patent sites.

Konrad Zuse and the First Computer

[5] “Computer Design—Past, Present, Future”. Konrad Zuse. Talk given in Lund,
Sweden, 2 October 1987. Available at http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Zuse.2.html.

“The Plankalkül”. Konrad Zuse. Gesellschaft für Mathematik und
Datenverarbeitung Bonn, no. 106, 1976. Note: This is the English
translation of the German original, first published in 1972 but written in
1945.

Mechanical Speech Synthesis

Speech Analysis, Synthesis and Perception. James Flanagan.
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1965, particularly pp. 166–167.

“A Synthetic Speaker”. Homer Dudley, Richard Riesz and Stanley Watkins.
Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 227, no. 6, June
1939, pp. 739–764.

“Eighteenth-Century Wetware”. Jessica Riskin. Representations,
no. 83, Summer 2003, pp. 97–125.

Von Kempelen’s Talking Machine

“The Defecating Duck, or, the Ambiguous Origins of Artificial Life”. Jessica
Riskin, Critical Enquiry, Summer 2003, vol. 29, No. 4,
pp. 599–633.

Joseph Faber’s “Wonderful Talking Machine”

“Talking Head”. David Lindsay, American Heritage of Invention and
Technology, vol. 13, 1997, pp. 57–63.

Electrical Speech Synthesis

“An Electrical Analog of the Vocal Organs”. John Stewart. Nature,
vol. 110, 1922, pp. 311–312.

Franklin Cooper’s Pattern Playback

“Some Instrumental Aids to Research on Speech”. Frank Cooper. Report on the
Fourth Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Teaching,
Georgetown University Press, Washington, 1953, pp. 46–53.

Speech Recognition

[6] “Ears for Computers”. Edward David. Scientific American,
vol. 192, February 1955, pp. 92–98.

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Chapter 2: Early History – Robots, Thought, Creativity,
Learning and Translation

Robot Tortoises

[1] “An Electro-Mechanical ‘Animal’”. W. Grey Walter. Discovery,
vol. 11, 1950, pp. 90–95.

Alan Turing

“An Electro-Mechanical ‘Animal’”. W. Grey Walter. Discovery,
vol. 11, 1950, pp. 90–95.

“Computing Machinery and Intelligence.” Alan Turing, Mind, vol. LIX,
no. 236, October 1950, pp. 433–460.

“1997 Loebner Prize Contest Results”. Available at http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/loebner-prize-1997.html.

“The Status and Future of the Turing Test”. James Moor.Minds and
Machines, vol.11, 2001, pp. 77–93.

“AI’s Greatest Trends and Controversies”. (Eds.) Marti Hearst and Haym Hirsh.
IEEE Intelligent Systems, January 2000, pp. 8–17. Also available
at http://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLAbsToc.jsp?resourcePath=/dl/mags/ex/&toc=comp/mags/ex/2000/01/x1toc.xml&DOI=10.1109/5254.820322.

“Computing Machinery and Intelligence”

[2] “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”. Alan Turing. Mind,
vol. LIX, no. 236, October 1950, pp. 433–460.

[3] “AI’s Greatest Trends and Controversies”. (Eds.) Marti Hearst and Haym
Hirsh. IEEE Intelligent Systems, January 2000, pp. 8–17. Also
available at http://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLAbsToc.jsp?resourcePath=/dl/mags/ex/&toc=comp/mags/ex/2000/01/x1toc.xml&DOI=10.1109/5254.820322.

The Turing Test

[4] Discourse on the Right Method for Conducting One’s Reason and
Discovering the Truth in the Sciences. René Descartes. 1637, translated in
The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, Cottingham, Stoothoff and
Murdoch, vol. 1, part 5, pp. 131–141, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, U.K., 1985.

[5] “Do Machines Think About Machines Thinking?” Leonard Pinsky.
Mind, vol. 60, 1951, pp. 397–398.

“The Turing Test”. Graham Oppy and David Dowe. The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), (Ed.) Edward N. Zalta. Available at http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2003/entries/turing-test/.

Creativity

Kircher’s Device

“Musurgia universalis sive ars magna consoni et dissoni.” Athanasius Kircher,
1650.

Mozart’s Dice Game

“Mozart’s Musikalisches Würfelspiel”. John Chuang. Available at http://sunsite.univie.ac.at/Mozart/dice/,
1995.

“A Mechanical marvel: The Componium of D.N.Winkel”. René Lyr. In History
of the Musical Box, (Ed.) Alfred Chapuis, Musical Box Society
International, New Jersey, 1980, pp. 103–111.

Machine Learning

“Experiments With a Computer Learning Routine”. Russell Kirsch. National
Bureau of Standards Electronic Computers Laboratory, Washington DC, July
1954.

Machine Translation

“An Essay Toward a Real Character and a Philosophical Language”. John
Wilkins. Thoemmes Continuum, Bristol, 2002. Also available at http://reliant.teknowledge.com/Wilkins/.

“Avtomaticeskij Perevod 1949–1963”. Igor Mel’čuk and R. Ravič.
VINITI – National Institute of Information Science and Technology, Moscow,
1967.

The Start of the Modern Age of Machine Translation

[6] “Translation”. Warren Weaver. In Machine Translation of
Languages, (Eds.) William Locke and Donald Booth, Chapman and Hall, London,
1955, pp. 15–21.

[7] “The Present Status of Automatic Translation of Languages”. Yehoshua
Bar-Hillel, American Documentation, vol. 2, 1951,
pp. 229–237.

[8] “Russian Is Turned into English by a Fast Electronic Translator”. Robert
K. Plumb. New York Times, 8 January 1954.

The 1956 Dartmouth Workshop

[9] “A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial
Intelligence”. John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathan Rochester and Claude
Shannon. Available at http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html.

“The Present Status of Automatic Translation of Languages”. Yehoshua
Bar-Hillel. In Advances in Computers, vol. 1, (Ed.) F.
Alt, Academic Press, New York, 1960, pp. 91–163.

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Top

Chapter 3: How Computers Play Games

Chess

“The Plankalkül”. Konrad Zuse, Gesellschaft für Mathematik und
Datenverarbeitung Bonn, no. 106, 1976. Note: This is the English
translation of the German original, first published in 1972 but written in
1945.

“Programming a Computer for Playing Chess”. Claude Shannon. Philosophical
Magazine, vol. 41, (7th series), pp. 256–275. Reprinted in
Computer Chess Compendium, David Levy, Batsford, London, 1988,
pp. 2–13.

Endgame Databases

“Untersuchungen über kombinatorische Spiele”. T Ströhlein. Ph.D. thesis,
Fakultät für Allgemeine Wissenschaften der Technischen Hochschule München,
Germany, 1970.

“Retrograde Analysis of Certain Endgames”. Ken Thompson. International
Computer Chess Association Journal, vol. 9, no. 3,
pp. 131–139.

“Some Results from a Massively Parallel Retrograde Analysis”. Lewis Stiller.
International Computer Chess Association Journal, vol. 14,
no. 3, pp. 129–134.

From Patzer to World Champion

“The Greenblatt Chess Program”. Richard Greenblatt, Donald Eastlake 3rd and
Stephen Crocker. In Proceedings of the Fall Joint Computer Conference,
1967, pp. 801–810. Reprinted in Computer Chess Compendium, David Levy,
Batsford, London, 1988, pp. 56–66.

“CHESS 4.5 – The Northwestern University Chess Program”. Larry Atkin and
David Slate. In Chess Skill in Man and Machine, (Ed.) Peter Frey,
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1977, pp. 82–118. Reprinted in Computer
Chess Compendium, David Levy, Batsford, London, 1988, pp. 80–103.

“Belle Chess Hardware”. Joe Condon and Ken Thompson. In Advances in
Computer Chess 3, (Ed.) Michael Clarke, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982,
pp. 45–54.

Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess
Champion. Feng-Hsiung Hsu. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ,
2002.

Checkers (Draughts)

“Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers”. Arthur Samuel.
IBM Journal of Research and Development, vol. 3, no. 3, July
1959, pp. 211–229. Reprinted in Computers and Thought, (Eds.)
Edward Feignbaum and Jerome Feldman, McGraw Hill, New York, 1963,
pp. 71–105.

“Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers II – Recent
Progress”. Arthur Samuel. IBM Journal of Research and Development,
vol. 11, no. 6, November 1967, pp. 601–617.

Chinook

[1] One Jump Ahead. Jonathan Schaeffer. Springer-Verlag, New York,
1997.

Using Databases to Solve Other Games

“A Knowledge-Based Approach of Connect-Four. The Game is Solved: White wins.”
Victor Allis. M.Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, Free
University, Amsterdam, 1988.

“A Note on the Computer Solution of Connect-Four”. James Allen. In
Heuristic Programming in Artificial Intelligence: the First Computer
Olympiad, (Eds.) David Levy and Don Beal, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1989,
pp. 134–135.

“Solving Nine Men's Morris”. Ralph Gasser. Computational
Intelligence, vol. 12, 1996, pp. 24–41.

“The Awari Oracle”. Henri Bal and John Romein. Available athttp://awari.cs.vu.nl/.

Go—The Most Difficult Game of All

40 Years of Computer Go – How Much Progress?

“Go”. In Computer Games II, (Ed.) David Levy, Springer-Verlag, New
York, 1987, Chapter 5.

[2] “What is Good Shape?” Francis Roads. British Go Journal,
no. 62, July 1984, p. 24.

Playing Metagames—Programs that Learn to Play from the Rules

“Towards a Versatile Self-Learning Board Game Program”. Aubrey de Grey. Final
Project, Tripos in Computer Science, University of Cambridge, 1985.

“Constructive induction on domain knowledge”. Jamie Callan and Paul Utgoff.
In Proceedings of the Ninth National Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, July 14–19, 1991, vol. 2, AAAI Press/MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1991, pp. 614–619.

“Automatic feature generation for problem solving systems”. Tom Fawcett and
Paul Utgoff. In Proceedings of the Ninth Interntational Workshop on Machine
Learning (Aberdeen, Scotland), (Eds.) Derek Sleeman and Peter Edwards,
Morgan Kaufman, San Mateo, CA, 1992, pp. 144–153.

“Feature Construction for Game Playing”. Paul Utgoff. In Machines that
Learn to Play Games, (Eds.) Johannes Fürenkranz and Miroslav Kubat, Nova
Science Publishers, New York, 2001, pp. 131–152.

“Feature Discovery for Problem Solving Systems”. Tom Fawcett. Ph.D.
dissertation, Department of Computer Science, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, MA, 1993.

[3] “METAGAME: A New Challenge for Games and Learning”. Barney Pell. In
Heuristic Programming in Artificial Intelligence 3—the Third Computer
Olympiad, (Eds.) Jaap van den Herik and Victor Allis, Ellis Horwood, Ltd.,
Chichester, U.K., 1992, pp. 237–251.

[4] “A Strategic Metagame Player for General Chess-Like Games”. Barney Pell.
In Proceedings of the 12th National Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, vol. 2., AAAI Press, Menlo Park, CA, 1994,
pp. 1378–1385.

Zillions of Games

Zillions of Games web site. Available at http://www.zillionsofgames.com/.

Games with Imperfect Information and Games with Chance

Bridge

How Computers Play the Cards in Bridge

“Computer Bridge: A Big Win for AI Planning”. Stephen Smith, Dana Nau and Tom
Throop. AI Magazine, vol. 19, no. 2, June 1998,
pp. 93–105.

[5] “GIB: Imperfect Information in a Computationally Challenging Game”.
Matthew Ginsberg. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research,
vol. 14, 2001, pp. 303–358.

“The Million Pound Bridge Program”. David Levy. In Heuristic Programming
in Artificial Intelligence: The First Computer Olympiad, (Eds.) David Levy
and Don Beal, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1989, pp. 95–103.

How Computers Bid in Bridge

[6] COBRA—The Computer-Designed Bidding System. Torbjörn Lindelöf.
Gollancz, London, 1983.

Backgammon—A Game with Chance

“BKG—A Program that Plays Backgammon”. Hans Berliner. Computer Science
Department Technical Report, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA,
1977. Reprinted in Computer Games I, (Ed.) David Levy, Springer-Verlag,
New York, 1988, pp. 3–28.

[7] “Backgammon Computer Program Beats World Champion.” Hans Berliner.
Artificial Intelligence, vol. 14, 1980, pp. 205–220.
Reprinted in Computer Games I, (Ed.) David Levy, Springer-Verlag, New
York, 1988, pp. 29–43.

Neurogammon

“NEUROGAMMON: A Neural-Network backgammon Learning Program”. Gerald Tesauro.
In Heuristic Programming in Artificial Intelligence: The First Computer
Olympiad, (Eds.) David Levy and Don Beal, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1989,
pp. 78–80.

TD-Gammon

“Learning to Predict by the Methods of Temporal Differences”. Richard Sutton.
Machine Learning, vol. 3, 1988, pp. 9–44.

“Temporal Difference Learning and TD-Gammon”. Gerald Tesauro.
Communications of the ACM, vol. 38, no. 3, March 1995,
pp. 58–67.

Poker—Imperfect and Misleading Information, and Chance

“Computer Model of Gambling and Bluffing”. Nicholas Findler. IRE
Transactions on Electronic Computers, vol. EC-10, no. 1, March
1961, pp. 5–6. Reprinted in Computer Games II, (Ed.) David Levy,
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1987, pp. 409–412.

“Studies in Machine Cognition Using the Game of Poker”. Nicholas Findler.
Communications of the ACM, vol. 20, no. 4, 1977,
pp. 230–245. Reprinted in Computer Games II, (Ed.) David Levy,
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1987, pp. 430–457.

“Computer Poker”. Nicholas Findler. Scientific American,
vol. 239, July 1978, pp. 144–151.

The University of Alberta Poker Project

“Computer Poker”. Technical Report TR 95-22, Department of Computing Science,
University of Alberta, 1995.

“Opponent Modeling in Poker”. Darse Billings, Denis Papp, Jonathan Schaeffer
and Duane Szafron. In Proceedings of the Fifteenth National Conference on
Artificial Intelligence (AAAi 98), AAAI Press/MIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
1998, pp. 493–499.

“Improved Opponent Modeling in Poker”. Aaron Davidson, Darse Billings,
Jonathan Schaeffer and Duane Szafron. In Proceedings of the 2000
International Conference on Artificial Intelligence (ICAI 2000), AAAI
Press, Menlo Park, CA, 2000, pp 1467–1473.

“The Challenge of Poker”. Darse Billings, Aaron Davidson, Jonathan Schaeffer
and Duane Szafron. Artificial Intelligence, vol. 134,
no. 1-2, 2002, pp. 201–240.

Poki’s Betting Strategy

“Optimal Heads-Up Pre-flop Hold’Em with $1–$2 Blinds with $2 Bets”. Alex
Selby. Available at http://www.archduke.demon.co.uk/simplex/art,
1999.

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Chapter 4: How Computers Recognize

Visual Recognition—How Computers See

Recognizing the Edges and Shapes in Images

“Machine Recognition of Three-dimensional Solids”. Lawrence Roberts. In
Optical and Electro-Optical Information Processing, (Ed.) James
Tippett, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1965, pp. 159–197.

“Decomposition of a Visual Scene into Three-Dimensional Bodies”. Alfonso
Guzman. AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference, vol. 33, 1968,
pp. 291–304.

Some Applications of Computer Vision

Human Face Recognition

“Neural Network Based Face Detection”. Henry Rowley, Shumeet Baluja and Takeo
Kanade. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence,
vol. 20, no. 1, January 1998, pp. 23–38.

Recognition in Three Dimensions

“CMOS-compatible Three-Dimensional Image Sensor IC”. Cyrus Bamji. US Patent
number 6,323,942, 27 November 2001.

A Television Slave

“Sharp Unit to License IP from U.S. Labs”. Colin Johnson. EE Times,
22 March 2004.

Speech Recognition

“How Does Speech Recognition Work?” James Matthews. Available at http://www.generation5.org/content/2002/howsrworks.asp.

Taste Recognition

“Nano-assembled films for taste sensor applications”. Antonio Ruil, Roger
Malmegrim, Fernando Fonesca and Luiz Mattoso. Artificial Organs,
vol. 27, May 2003, pp. 469–472.

“Multi-shell Microspheres with Integrated Chromatographic and Detection
Layers for Use in Array Sensors”. Adrian Goodey and John McDevitt. Journal
of the American Chemistry Society, vol. 125, 2003,
pp. 2870–2871.

Smell Recognition

“Neural Network Based Electronic Nose for Apple Ripeness Determination”. Evor
Hines, Eduard Llobet and Julian Gardner. Electronic Letters,
vol. 35, no. 10, 13 May 1999, pp. 821–823.

The Recognition of Creative Style

Artistic Style

“Discovering the Visual Signature of Painters”. Jaap van den Herik and Eric
Postma. In Future Directions for Intelligent Systems and Information
Sciences, (Ed.) Nikola Kasabov, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 2000,
pp. 129–147.

“Identifying Painters from Color Profiles of Skin Patches in Painting
Images”. Ivo Widjaja, Wee Kheng Leow and Fang-Cheng Wu. In Proceedings of
the 2003 International Conference on Image Processing,
vol. 1, IEEE Press, Los Alamitos, CA, 2003, pp. 845-848.

Literary Style

Inference and Disputed Authorship: The Federalist. Frederick
Mosteller and David Wallace. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA,1964.

“Neural Network Applications in Stylometry: The Federalist Papers”. Fiona
Tweedie, Sameer Singh and David Holmes. Computers and the Humanities,
vol. 30, no. 1, 1996, pp. 1–10.

“The Federalist Revisited: New Directions in Authorship Attribution”. David
Holmes and Richard Forsyth. Linguistic and Literary Computing,
vol. 10, 1995, pp. 111–127.

Musical Style

“A Machine Learning Approach to Musical Style Recognition”. Roger Dannenburg,
Belinda Thom and David Watson. In Proceedings of the 1997 International
Computer Music Conference, International Computer Music Association, San
Francisco, 1997, pp. 344–347.

“Classification of Melodies by Composer with Hidden Markov Models”. Emanuele
Pollastri and Giuliano Simoncelli. In Proceedings of the First International
Conference on Web Delivering of Music, Florence, Italy 23–24 November 2001,
IEEE Press, Los Alamitos, CA, 2001, pp. 88–95.

“Musical Style Recognition—A Quantitative Approach”. Peter van Kranenburg and
Eric Backer. In Proceedings of the Conference on Interdisciplinary
Musicology (CIM04), Graz/Austria,15–18 April 2004, (Eds.) R. Parncutt, A.
Kessler and F. Zimmer, 2004. Available at http://gewi.uni-graz.at/~cim04/CIM04_paper_pdf/Kranenburg_Backer_CIM04_proceedings.pdf.

“Automatic Recognition of Famous Artists by Machine”. Gerhard Widmet and
Patrick Zanon. In Proceedings of the 16th European Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, (Eds.) R. Lopez de Mantaras and L. Saitta, IOS Press,
Amsterdam, 2004.

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Chapter 5: Creative Computers

[1] “Creativity at the Metalevel”. AAAI-2000 Presidential Address. Bruce
Buchanan. AI Magazine, vol. 22, no. 3, Fall 2001,
pp. 13–28.

“Approaches to and Definitions of Creativity”. Calvin Taylor. In The
Nature of Creativity: Contemporary Psychological Perspectives, (Ed.) Robert
J. Sternberg, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 1988, pp. 99–121.

[2] “Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage, Esq.”.
Luigi Menabrea. In Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève, October 1842,
no. 82. Translated by Ada Lovelace, reproduced as “Note G” of Appendix 1 in
Faster Than Thought, Lord Bertram Bowden, Pitman, London, 1953.

[3] Faster Than Thought. Lord Bertram Bowden. Pitman, London,
1953.

How Computers Write Poetry

[4] “Poetry Digital Media and Cybertext”. Chris Funkhouser. Available at http://web.njit.edu/~cfunk/SP/hypertext/POETRY%20DIGITAL%20MEDIA%20CYBERTEXT2.doc.

“Computerized Japanese Haiku”. M. Masterman and R. McKinnon Wood. In
“Cybernetic Serendipity—The Computer and the Arts, (Ed.) Jasia
Reichardt, Studio International, London, 1968, p. 54–55.

[5] “Ray Kurzweil’s Cybernetic Poet”. Available at http://www.kurzweilcyberart.com/poetry/rkcp_overview.php3.

How Computers Write Fiction

“Random Generation of English Sentences”. Victor Yngve. In 1961
International Conference on Machine Translation of Languages and Applied
Language Analysis, vol. 1, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London,
1962, pp. 66–80.

TALE-SPIN

[6] “TALE-SPIN”. James Meehan. In Inside Computer Understanding,
(Eds.) Roger Schank and Christopher Riesbeck, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Hillsdale, NJ, 1981, pp. 197–226. See also “Micro TALE-SPIN”, by the same
author, same source, pp. 227–258.

MINSTREL

Thirty-Six Dramatic Situations. Georges Polti. The Writer, Inc.,
Boston, 1977. (The date of original publication is variously given as 1917 and
1921.)

Morphology of the Folktale. Vladimir Propp. (Laurence Scott,
Translator, from the Russian original of 1928.) University of Indiana Press,
Bloomington, IN, 1958.

The Creative Process: A Computer Model of Storytelling and
Creativity. Scott Turner. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1994.

STORYBOOK

“Narrative Prose Generation”. Charles Callaway and James Lester. In
Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Joint Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco, 2001, pp. 1241–1250. A longer
paper by the same authors and with the same title appears in Artificial
Intelligence, vol. 139, no. 2, August 2002, pp. 213–252.

BRUTUS

[7] “Chess is Too Easy”. Selmer Bringsjord. MIT’s Technology Review,
March/April 1998, pp. 23–28. For a detailed description of BRUTUS, see
Artificial Intelligence and Literary Creativity: Inside the Mind of BRUTUS,
a Storytelling Machine, Selmer Bringsjord and David Ferrucci,
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 2000.

How Computers Write Non-Fiction

“Producing Biographical Summaries: Combining Linguistic Knowledge with Corpus
Statistics”. Barry Schiffman, Inderjeet Mani and Kristian Concepcion. In
Proceedings of the 10th Conference of the European Chapter of the
Association for Computational Linguistics, Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco,
2001, pp. 450–457.

“Columbia Multi-Document Summarization Approach and Evaluation”. Kathleen
McGeown, Regina Barzilay, David Evans, Vasileios Hatzivassiloglou, Barry
Schiffman and Simone Teufel. Document Understanding Conference, Workshop on Text
Summarization, New Orleans, September 2001.

How Computers Compose Music

Markov Chains in Music

“Information Theory and Melody”. Richard Pinkerton. Scientific
American, vol. 194, no. 2, February 1956, pp. 77–86.

“The Markov Process as a Compositional Model: A Survey and Tutorial”. Charles
Ames. Leonardo, vol. 22, no. 2, 1989, pp. 175–187.

Rule-Based Music Systems

[8] “Syncopation by Automation”. Martin Klein. Radio Electronics,
June 1957, pp. 36–38.

“Automated Composition in Retrospect: 1956–1986”. Charles Ames.
Leonardo, vol. 20, no. 2, 1987, pp. 169–185.

“An Expert System for Schenkerian Synthesis of Chorales in the Style of
J.S.Bach”. Kemal Ebcioğlu. In Proceedings of the International Computer
Music Conference 1984, Computer Music Association, San Francisco, 1984,
pp. 135–142.

David Cope

[9] Virtual Music: Computer Synthesis of Musical Style. David Cope.
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001. See also David Cope’s home page at http://arts.ucsc.edu/faculty/cope/.

“Facing the Maker”. Jill Neimark. Science and Spirit, July 2001.
Available at http://www.science-spirit.org/article_detail.php?article_id=230.

How Does EMI Work?

Virtual Music: Computer Synthesis of Musical Style. David Cope, MIT
Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001.

David Cope’s home page. Available at http://arts.ucsc.edu/faculty/cope/.

How Computers Create Visual Art

“Human or Machine: A Subjective Comparison of Piet Mondrian's ‘Composition
with Lines’ and a Computer–Generated Picture”. A. Michael Noll. The
Psychological Record, vol. 16, no. 1, January 1966,
pp. 1–10.

Cybernetic Serendipity: the Computer and the Arts. (Ed.) Jasia
Reichardt. Studio International, London, 1968.

AARON

[10] “The Further Exploits of AARON, Painter”. Harold Cohen. Stanford
Humanities Review, vol. 4, no. 2, 1995, pp. 141–160.

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Chapter 6: How Computers Think

[1] “Why People Think Machines Can’t”. Marvin Minsky. First published in
AI Magazine, vol. 3, no. 4, Fall 1982, pp. 3–15.
Reprinted in MIT Technology Review, Nov/Dec 1983, pp. 67–70 and
80–81, and in The Computer Culture, (Ed.) Dennis Donnelly, Associated
University Presses, Cranbury, NJ, 1985.

Logical Reasoning

The Logic Theory Machine

“Empirical Explorations with the Logic Theory Machine: A Case Study in
Heuristics”. Allan Newell, John Shaw and Herbert Simon. In Computers and
Thought, (Eds.) Edward Feigenbaum and Jerome Feldman, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1963, pp. 109–133.

Problem Solving

The Advice Taker

“Programs With Common Sense”. John McCarthy. First published in
Proceedings of the Symposium on the Mechanisation of Thought Processes,
Teddington, Middlesex, U.K., 1958. Also available at http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcc59/mcc59.html.

The General Problem Solver

Human Problem Solving. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon. Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1965.

Planning

“STRIPS: A New Approach to the Application of Theorem Proving to Problem
Solving”. Richard Fikes and Nils Nilsson. Artificial Intelligence,
vol. 2, 1971, pp. 189–208.

“Agent-Based Continuous Planning”. Ruth Aylett, Alexandra Coddington and Gary
Petley. In Proceedings of the 19th Workshop of the UK Planning and
Scheduling Special Interest Group (PLANSIG), 2000. Available at http://mcs.open.ac.uk/plansig2000/Papers/aylett.pdf.

Commonsense Reasoning

[2] “The Open Mind Common Sense Project”. Push Singh. Available at http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0371.html?printable=1,
2 January 2002.

Case Based Reasoning

Dynamic Memory: A Theory of Reminding and Learning in Computers and
People. Roger Schank. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.,
1982.

“A Case-Based Approach to Modelling Legal Expertise”. Kevin Ashley and Edwina
Rissland. IEEE Expert, vol. 3, no. 3, 1988,
pp. 70–77.

“Persuasive Argumentation in Negotiation”. Katia Sycara. Theory and
Decision, vol. 28, no. 3, 1990, pp. 203–242.

How Computers Learn

Reinforcement Learning

Thinking by Machine: A Study of Cybernetics. Pierre de Latil.
(Translation by Y.M.Golla.) Sidgwick and Jackson, London, 1953.

“Boxes: An Experiment in Adaptive Control”. Donald Michie and Roger Chambers.
In Machine Intelligence 2, (Eds.) Ella Dale and Donald Michie, Oliver
and Boyd, Edinburgh, 1968, pp. 137–152.

[3] “Trial and Error”. Donald Michie. In Penguin Science Survey 1961:
Part 2, (Eds.) Samuel Barnett and Anne McLaren, Pelican Books,
Harmonsworth, 1961, pp. 129–145.

Artificial Neural Networks

“A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity”. Warren
McCulloch and Walter Pitts. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics,
vol. 5, 1943, pp. 115–137.

The Creativity Machine

[4] “The Creativity Machine”. Robert Holmes. New Scientist,
vol. 149, no. 2013, 20 January 1996, pp. 22–26.

Imagination Engines, Inc. web site. Available at http://www.imagination-engines.com/.

“Device System for the Autonomous Generation of Useful Information”. Stephen
Thaler. US Patent number 6,356,884, 12 March 2002.

Genetic Algorithms

[5] “Outline for a Logical Theory of Adaptive Systems”. John Holland.
Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, vol. 9, 1962,
pp. 297–314.

How Computers Discover and Invent

[6] “Creativity at the Metalevel”. AAAI-2000 Presidential Address. Bruce
Buchanan. AI Magazine, vol. 22, no. 3, Fall 2001,
pp. 13–28.

Discovery

“Why Some Programs Do Knowledge Discovery Well: Experiences from
Computational Scientific Discovery”. Raul Valdés-Pérez. Unpublished, School of
Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, 1998.

Invention

Genetic Programming Inc. home page. Available at http://www.genetic-programming.com/.

Knowledge Discovery

Experiments in Induction. Earl Hunt, Janet Marin and Philip Stone.
Academic Press, New York, 1966.

“Discovering Rules by Induction from Large Collections of Examples”. J Ross
Quinlan. In Expert Systems in the Microelectronic Age, (Ed.) Donald
Michie, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburugh, 1979, pp. 168–201.

Expert Systems

“A Logic-Based Approach to Rule Induction in Expert Systems”. Brenda Mak and
Robert Blanning. Expert Systems, vol. 20, no. 3, July 2003,
pp. 141–149.

Application of Artificial Intelligence for Chemistry: The DENDRAL
Project. Robert Lindsay, Bruce Buchanan, Edward Feigenbaum and Joshua
Lederberg. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980.

“Introduction to Expert Systems: MYCIN”. David Landsbergen. Available at http://ppm.ohio-state.edu/ppm/~landsbergen/classes/ITP/ES.pdf.

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Chapter 7: How Computers Communicate

Natural Language Processing

The First 50 Years of NLP

[1] Computer Power and Human Reason. Joseph Weizenbaum. W. H.
Freeman and Company, New York, 1976.

Syntactic Structures. Noam Chomsky. Mouton and Co., The Hague,
1957.

Understanding Natural Language. Terry Winograd. Academic Press, New
York, 1972.

“Human Engineering for Applied Natural Language Processing”. Gary Hendrix. In
Proceedings of the 5th International Joint Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, William Kaufmann, Los Altos, CA, 1977, pp. 183–191.

WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database. (Ed.) Christine Fellbaum.
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998.

Passing the Turing Test

The Loebner Prize web site. Available at http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/loebner-prize.html.

Machine Translation Since 1954

Syntactic Structures. Noam Chomsky. Mouton and Co., The Hague,
1957.

Text-to-Speech Synthesis

“Letter-to-Sound Rules for Automatic Translation of English Text to
Phonetics”. Honey Elovitz, R. Johnson, A. McHugh and J. Shore. IEEE
Transactions on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing, vol. 24
(ASSP-24), 1976, pp. 446–459.

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Chapter 8: Things to Do for Robots

Robot Soccer

[1] RoboCup Web site. Available at http://www.robocup.org/.

A Robot Sports Miscellany

Table Tennis

[2] Personal communication, Russ Andersson.

The Robot Chauffeur

[3] DARPA Grand Challenge Web site. Available at http://www.darpa.mil/grandchallenge/qa.html.

Gastrobots

“‘Gastrobots’—Benefits and Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells in Food Powered
Robot Applications”. Stuart Wilkinson. Autonomous Robots, vol. 9,
no. 2, 2000, pp. 99–111.

“A Slug Detection System for the SlugBot”. Ian Kelly and Chris Melhuish. In
Towards Intelligent Mobile Robots (TIMR01), (Proceedings of the 3rd
British Conference on Autonomous Mobile Robots), (Eds.)Ulrich Nehmzow and Chris
Melhuisch, published as Technical Report UMCS-01-4-1, Department of
Computer Science, Manchester University, April 2001.

Domestic Robots

Bonding with your Robot Servant

[4] “The New Pet Craze: Robovacs”. Leander Kahney. Wired News,
16 June 2003, available at http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,59249,00.html.

Robots that Change their Own Shape

[5] “Self-Reconfiguring Robots”. Daniela Rus. IEEE Intelligent
Systems, vol. 13, no. 4, July/August 1998, pp. 2–4.

The Robot Grand Challenge

“GRACE: An Autonomous Robot for the AAAI Robot Challenge”. Reid Simmons,
Myriam Abramson, William Adams, Amin Atrash, Magda Bugajska, Michael Coblenz,
Dani Goldberg, Adam Goode, David Kortenkamp, Ian Horswill, Matt MacMahon, Bruce
Maxwell, Tod Milam, Michael Montemerlo, Dennis Perzanowski, Nicholas Roy, Alan
Schultz, Brennan Sellner, Chris Urmson, Bryn Wolfe and Robert Zubek. AI
Magazine, vol. 24, no. 2,Summer 2003, pp. 51–72.

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Chapter 9: The Exponential Growth of Scientific
Achievements

[1] The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human
Intelligence. Ray Kurzweil. Viking Press, New York, 1999. (Republished by
Penguin in 2000.)

[2] “AI’s Greatest Trends and Controversies”. (Eds.) Marti Hearst and Haym
Hirsh. IEEE Intelligent Systems, January 2000, pp. 8–17. Also
available at http://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLAbsToc.jsp?resourcePath=/dl/mags/ex/&toc=comp/mags/ex/2000/01/x1toc.xml&DOI=10.1109/5254.820322.

What is Exponential Growth?

[3]“The Law of Accelerating Returns”. Ray Kurzweil. Posted on KurzweilAI.net,
7 March 2001. Available at http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0134.html?printable=1.

The Optical Computer

“Now, Just A Blinkin' Picosecond!” Science@NASA home page. Available
at http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast28apr_1m.htm.

The DNA Computer

“Molecular Computation of Solutions to Combinatorial Problems”. Leonard
Adelman, Science, vol. 266, 11 November 1994,
pp. 1021–1024.

[4] “Problem on a DNA Computer”. Ravinderjit Braich, Nickolas Chelyapov,
Cliff Johnson, Paul Rothemund and Leonard Adleman. Science,
vol. 296, 19 April 2002, pp. 499–502.

“How DNA Computers Will Work”. Kevin Bonsor. Available at http://computer.howstuffworks.com/dna-computer2.htm.

“An Autonomous Molecular Computer for Logical Control of Gene Expression”.
Uri Ben-Dor, Yaakov Benenson, Rivka Adar, Binyamin Gil and
Ehud Shapiro. Nature, vol. 429, 2004, pp. 423–42.

The Molecular Computer (Nano-Machines)

[5] “Computer Scientists Are Poised for Revolution on a Tiny Scale”. John
Markoff. The New York Times, 1 November 1999.

Computer Memory

[6] Personal communication, Yorick Wilks, 1996.

The Knowledge Explosion

[7] History of the Western World. Harry Barnes. Harcourt, Brace and
Company, New York, 1937.

The Force of Knowledge: The Scientific Dimension of Society. John
Ziman. Cambridge University Press, London, 1976.

“The Mount Sinai Division of Gastroenterology at the Beginning of the 21st
Century”. Steven Itkowitz. Mount Sinai Journal, vol. 68,
no. 2, 1968, pp. 96–101.

[8] Life Evolving: Molecules, Mind, and Meaning. Christian de Duve.
Oxford University Press, New York, 2002.

[9] Consilience—The Unity of Knowledge. Edward O. Wilson. Knopf, New
York, 1998.

[10] “Science, and Music, with Exuberance and Humility”. Vladi Chaloupka.
Available at http://www.phys.washington.edu/~vladi/WM.html.

[11] Retrolental Fibroplasia: A Modern Parable. William Silverman.
Grune and Stratton, New York, 1980. Available on “Nanotechnology on the Web” at
http://www.neonatology.org/classics/parable/default.html.

Some Views of the Future

Lawrence Summers

[12] “Remarks of Harvard University President Lawrence H. Summers, Bauer
Laboratory Dinner”. Available at http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2002/bauer2.html.

Ray Kurzweil

[13] The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human
Intelligence. Ray Kurzweil. Viking Press, New York, 1999. (Republished by
Penguin in 2000.)

Hugo de Garis

[14]“Singularity”. Vernor Vinge. The original version of this essay was
presented at the VISION-21 Symposium sponsored by NASA Lewis Research Center and
the Ohio Aerospace Institute, March 30–31, 1993. A slightly changed version
appeared in the Winter 1993 issue of Whole Earth Review. Available at
http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~phoenix/vinge/vinge-sing.html.

[15] “Robokitty”. Hugo de Garis. New York Times Magazine, 1 August
1999.

[16]“Cosmism: Nano-Electronics and 21st Century Global Ideological Warfare”.
Hugo de Garis. Available at http://www.cs.usu.edu/~degaris/essays/COSMISM.html.
(Numbers corrected via personal communication.)

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Chapter 10: Emotion and Love, AI Style

[1] Art and Technics. Lewis Mumford. 1952. Recently republished by
Columbia University Press, New York, 2000.

Functions of Emotion

[2] Affective Computing. Rosalind Picard. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
1997.

[3] Emotional Design. Donald Norman. Basic Books, New York,
2004.

Psychological Theories of Emotion

The Cognitive Structure of Emotions. Andrew Ortony, Gerald Clore and
Allan Collins. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 1988.

Humans Feeling Affection for Robots—The Tamagotchi

“Bandai’s Golden Egg”. Rebecca Eisenber.
Pathfinder-Netlynewsnetwork, 21 March 1997. Available at http://www.virtualpet.com/vp/farm/lleg/newsnet.htm.

Five Criteria for Emotions

“Motivations and Emotional Controls of Cognition”. In Models of
Thought, Herb Simon, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 1967,
pp. 29–38.

“Towards Emotional Computer-Interaction”. Marije Geldof. Available at http://www.cs.vu.nl/~mmc/mci/content_pages/opdrachtvoorbeelden/PaperMCI-mgeldof.doc.

Emotional Design. Donald Norman Basic Books, New York, 2004.

Affective Computing. Rosalind Picard. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
1997.

Models of Emotion in Robots

“Integrating the ORTONY/CLORE/COLLINS Model of Emotion in Embodied
Characters”. Christoph Bartneck. In Virtual Conversational Characters:
Applications, Methods, and Research Challenge, Workshop Papers, 2002.
Available at http://www.vhml.org/cgi-bin/HF2002/create_paper_page?bartneck.

The Oz Model of Emotion

“Oz Project Home Page”. Carnegie Mellon University School of Computer Science
web site. Available at http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/project/oz/web/oz.html.

[4] “Building Emotional Agents”. W. Scott Reilly and Joseph Bates.
Technical Report CMU-CS-92-143, School of Computer Science, Carnegie
Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, May 1992. My description of the Oz model of
emotion is based on a summary from this source, published with permission from
the authors. For a more comprehensive overview of the Oz Emotion Model, see the
later publication “Believable Social and Emotional Agents”, W. Scott Neal
Reilly, PhD Thesis, Technical Report CMU-CS-96-138, School of Computer
Science, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, May 1996.

“The Role of Emotion in Believable Agents”. Joseph Bates. Communications
of the Association for Computing Machinery, vol. 37, no. 7, July
1994, pp. 122–125.

How Emotions are Affected by Events

“Variables Influencing the Intensity of Simulated Affective States”. Clark
Elliott and Greg Siegel. InAAAI technical report for the Spring Symposium on
Reasoning about Mental States: Formal Theories and Applications, American
Association for Artificial Intelligence, Palo Alto, CA, 1993,
pp. 58–67.

How Expectations Affect Emotions

“Cathexis. A Computational Model for the Generation of Emotions and their
Influence in the Behaviour of Autonomous Agents.” Juan Velazquez. Masters
thesis, MIT Media Lab, 1996.

Empathy—How Robots Recognize and Measure Emotions in Humans

“I Could Be You: The Phenomenological Dimension of Social Understanding”.
Kerstin Dautenhan. Cybernetics and Systems Journal, vol. 28, 1997,
pp. 417–453.

“Emotionally Responsive Poker Playing Agents”. Stuart Marquis and Clark
Elliott. In Notes for the Twelfth National Conference on Artificial
Intelligence (AAAI-94) Workshop on Artificial Intelligence, Artificial Life, and
Entertainment, American Association for Artificial Intelligence, Menlo
Park, CA, 1994, pp. 11–15.

“Point of View: Modeling the Emotions of Others”. Clark Elliott and Andrew
Ortony. In Proceedings 14th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science
Society, Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 1992, pp. 809–814.

“Towards Agents that Recognize Emotion”. Rosalind Picard. Actes
Proceedings IMAGINA, March 1998, pp. 153–155. Available at http://vismod.media.mit.edu//tech-reports/TR-515.pdf.

Mind Reading

“Real-Time Prediction of Hand Trajectory by Ensembles of Cortical Neurons in
Primates”. Johan Wessberg, Christopher Stambaugh, Jerald Kralik, Pamela Beck,
Mark Laubach, John Chapin, Jung Kim, James Biggs, Mandayam Srinivasan and Miguel
Nicolelis. Nature, vol. 408, no. 6810, 2000,
pp. 361–365.

“Monkey See, Robot Do”. David Adam. Nature Science Update, 16
November 2000. Available at http://www.nature.com/nsu/001116/001116-9.html.

[5] “Monkey Think, Robot Do”. Sandra Blakeslee. New York Times, 13
October 2003. Also available at http://www.wireheading.com/brainstim/thoughtcontrol.html.

[6] “Decoding Minds, Foiling Adversaries”. Sharon Berry. Signal,
October 2001, p. 55.

How Robots Express Emotion

The Kismet Model of Emotion

Kismet Project Web site. Available at http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/humanoid-robotics%20group/kismet/kismet.html.

Affective Computing. Rosalind Picard. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
1997.

[7] “Emotionware”. Lynellen D. S. Perry. ACM Crossroads Student
Magazine. Available athttp://www.acm.org/crossroads/xrds3-1/emotware.html.

“Emotionally Responsive Poker Playing Agents”. Stuart Marquis and Clark
Elliott. In Notes for the Twelfth National Conference on Artificial
Intelligence (AAAI-94) Workshop on Artificial Intelligence, Artificial Life, and
Entertainment, American Association for Artificial Intelligence, Menlo
Park, CA, 1994, pp. 11–15.

Robot Personality

“Can Computer Personalities Be Human Personalities?” Clifford Nass, Youngme
Moon, Brian Fogg, Byron Reeves and Chris Dryer. International Journal
of Human-Computer Studies, vol. 43, pp. 223–239.

[8] “Personality in Computer Characters”. Daniel Rousseau. InProceedings
of the 1996 AAAI Workshop on Entertainment and AI/A-Life, AAAI Press, Menlo
Park, CA, August 1996, pp. 38–43.

“The Use of Personality in Intelligent Agents”. Steve Engels. Computer
Science Department, University of Toronto, Final Report CS 685, December
1999.

“Personality in Synthetic Agents”. Daniel Rousseau and Barbara Hayes-Roth.
Knowledge Systems Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, Stanford
University, Report No. KSL 96–21, 1996.

“Point of View: Modeling the Emotions of Others”. Clark Elliott and Andrew
Ortony. In Proceedings 14th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science
Society, Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 1992, pp. 809–814.

Love and Marriage with Robots—An Acceptable Idea?

Same Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe. John Boswell. Villard, New
York, 1994.

Robots and Love

“Computers that Recognize and Respond to User Emotion: Theoretical and
Pracical Implications”. Rosalind Picard and Jonathan Klein. MIT Media Lab
Technical Report no. 538, 2001.

Companionship

[9] “Computers that Recognize and Respond to User Emotion: Theoretical and
Pracical Implications”. Rosalind Picard and Jonathan Klein. MIT Media Lab
Technical Report no. 538, 2001.

[10] The Tomorrow Makers. Grant Fjermedal. MacMillan Publishing
Company, New York, 1986.

[11] Personal communication, Arthur Harkins, 2003.

How Robots will be Programmed to Love

[12] “Architectural Requirements for Human-Like Agents Both Natural and
Artificial (What sorts of machines can love?)”. Aaron Sloman, School of Computer
Science, University of Birmingham, U.K. Available athttp://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~axs. In
Human Cognition and Social Agent Technology: Advances in
Consciousness Research, (Ed.) Kerstin Dautenhahn, John Benjamins
Publishing, Philadelphia, 2000, pp. 163–195.

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Chapter 11: Sex and Reproduction, AI Style

Sex with Robots

[1] Posting on “On Display”, 1971, Motorcycle Hall of Fame Museum. Originally
posted at
http://www.amadirectlink.com/museum/exhibits/cb750/cb750_Comments.html, but no
longer available. The museum’s site has moved to http://www.motorcyclemuseum.org/.

Intelligent Sex Machines

American Sex Machines: The Hidden History of Sex at the U.S. Patent
Office. Hoag Levins. Adams Publishing, Boston, 1996.

[2] MIT Erotic Computation Group Web site. Available at http://www.monzy.com/ecg. [NOTE: This site
is a hoax!]

[3] “A Web Hoax Pokes Fun at M.I.T.’s Media Lab”. Andrew Zipern. New York
Times, 3 December 2001.

[4] MIT Media Lab Web site. Available at http://www.media.mit.edu/.

“Indians Envision Sex Aid Add-Ons To ASIMO”. Ricky James. SciScoop,
12 September 2003. Available at http://www.sciscoop.com/story/2003/9/12/74338/7915.

Experiments with Sexbots

[5] “Sexbots”. Jon Katz. Posted on http://slashdot.org/features/99/03/09/1544207.shtml,
10 March 1999.

“Cybersex and Reproduction”. In Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in
Virtual Reality, Philip Zhai, Rowman and Littlefield Publishing (via NBN),
Lanham, MD, 1998, Chapter 2, Section 3. Available at
www.geocities.com/athens/3328/.

The Mechanics of Sex with Robots

[6] “Robot finger has feeling”. Philip Ball. Nature Science Update,
3 March 2003. Available at http://www.nature.com/nsu/030303/030303-4.html.
Report on the article “Artificial Muscles with Tactile Sensitivity”, Toribio
Fernández Otero and Maria Teresa Cortés, Advanced Materials,
vol. 15, 2003, pp. 279–282.

Where Can I Buy One?

[7] “Take Your Partners”. Barry Fox. New Scientist, 20 January
2001.

Dominic Choy’s Patent Application

[8] “Simulated Human Interaction Systems”. Dominic Choy. U.S. Patent number
6,695,770, 24 February 2004. (Patent documents are available from many
free-of-charge web sites, for example, http://gb.espacenet.com/.)

Robot Reproduction

[9] “Beyond Computation: A Talk with Rodney Brooks”. Edge, Edge
Foundation, Inc., 6 March 2002. Available at http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/brooks_beyond/beyond_index.html.

Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata. John von Neumann. University of
Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, 1966, particularly pp. 93–99 and
p. 131.

Self-Reproducing Software and Genetic Programming

“Spontaneous Emergence of Self-Replicating and Evolutionarily Self-Improving
Computer Programs”. John R. Koza. In Artificial Life III: Proceedings of the
Workshop on Artificial Life Santa Fe, New Mexico, June 14–19,
1992, Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, 1993, pp. 225–262.

Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural
Selection. John Koza. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992.

“An Approach to the Synthesis of Life”. Thomas Ray. In Artificial Life
II: Proceedings of the Workshop on Artificial Life, Santa Fe, New Mexico,
February 1990, (Eds.) Langton, Taylor, Farmer, Doyne and Rasmussen,
Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, 1991, pp. 371–408.

Self-Reproducing Hardware

[10] “A Droid for All Seasons”. Duncan Graham-Rowe. New Scientist,
13 May 2000.

[11] “Advanced Automation for Space Missions”. (Ed.) Robert A. Freitas Jr. In
Proceedings of the 1980 NASA/ASEE Summer Study, University of Santa
Clara, NASA Conference Publication 2255.

Robot Evolution

[12] “AI’s Greatest Trends and Controversies”. (Eds.) Marti Hearst and Haym
Hirsh. IEEE Intelligent Systems, January 2000, pp. 8–17. Also
available at http://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLAbsToc.jsp?resourcePath=/dl/mags/ex/&toc=comp/mags/ex/2000/01/x1toc.xml&DOI=10.1109/5254.820322.

“Synthesis of Autonomous Robots Through Evolution”. Stefano Nolfi and Dario
Floreano. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol. 6, no. 1,
2002, pp. 31–37.

“The Microbial Genetic Algorithm”. Inman Harvey. Letter to Evolutionary
Computation, 19 January 1996.

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Chapter 12: Robot Consciousness

What is Consciousness?

[1] Erewhon. Samuel Butler. Trübner and Co., London, 1872. Second
edition, 1901. Available at www.hoboes.com/html/FireBlade/Butler/Erewhon/.

[2] “Why People Think Machines Can’t”. Marvin Minsky. First published in
AI Magazine, vol. 3 no. 4, Fall 1982, pp. 3–15.
Reprinted in MIT Technology Review, Nov/Dec 1983, pp. 67–70 and
80–81, and in The Computer Culture, (Ed.) Dennis Donnelly, Associated
University Presses, Cranbury, NJ, 1985.

[3] Letter to New Scientist. Susan Blackmore. 9 August 2003,
p. 28.

[4] “Consciousness in Meme Machines”. Susan Blackmore. Journal of
Consciousness Studies, vol. 10, no. 4–5, 2003, pp. 19–30.
Also available at http://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Articles/JCS03.htm.

[5] The Selfish Gene. Richard Dawkins. Paladin, London, 1976.

[6] “A Systems Approach to Consciousness (How to Avoid Talking Nonsense?)”
Summary of a lecture presented by Aaron Sloman at the Royal Society of Arts, 26
February 1996. Available at http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~axs/misc/consciousness.rsa.text.

Can Robots Have Consciousness?

Consciousness. William Lycan. Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge,
MA, 1987. (Includes “Abortion and the Civil Rights of Machines” in the
appendix.)

Consciousness and Experience. William Lycan. Bradford Books/MIT
Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996.

“Frankenstein Unbound: Toward a Legal Definition of Artificial Intelligence”.
Sam Lehman-Wilzig. Futures, December 1981, pp. 442–457.

“Can a Machine Be Conscious? How?” Stevan Harnad. Journal of
Consciousness Studies, vol. 10, no. 4–5, April/May 2003,
pp. 69–75.

Man and the Computer. John Kemeny. Charles Scribner's Sons, New
York, 1972.

[7] Computer Power and Human Reason. Joseph Weizenbaum. W. H.
Freeman and Company, New York, 1976.

[8] “Can a Machine Be Conscious? How?” Stevan Harnad. Journal of
Consciousness Studies, vol. 10, no. 4–5, April/May 2003,
pp. 69–75.

[9] The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human
Intelligence. Ray Kurzweil. Viking Press, New York, 1999. (Republished by
Penguin in 2000.)

[10] “Against Functionalism: Consciousness as an Information Bearing Medium”.
Bruce Mangan. In Toward a Science of Consciousness II: The Second Tucson
Discussions and Debates, (Eds.) Stuart Hameroff, Alfred Kaszniak and Alwyn
Scott, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, pp. 135–141.

“Cog: Steps Towards Consciousness in Robots”. Daniel Dennett. In
Conscious Experience, (Ed.) Thomas Metzinger, Imprint Academic
Schöningh, Paderborn, 1995, pp. 471–487.

Robot Feelings

[11] “The Feelings of Robots”. Paul Ziff. Analysis, vol. 19,
no. 3, January 1959, pp. 64–68.

[12] “Professor Ziff on Robots”. Jack Smart, Analysis, vol. 20,
no. 1, April 1959, pp. 117–118.

[13] “A Pragmatic Note”. Sidney Hook. In Dimsensions of Mind, (Ed.)
Sidney Hook, Proceedings of 3rd Annual Symposium of New York University
Institute of Philosophy, May 15–16, 1959, New York University Press, New
York, 1960.

Robot Hopes and Wishes

[14] “Making Robots Conscious of Their Mental States”. John McCarthy. July
1995 to July 2002. Available at http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/consciousness/consciousness.html.

Can Robots Have Beliefs?

[15] “Ascribing Mental Qualities to Machines”. John McCarthy. 1979. Available
at http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/ascribing/ascribing.html.

Can Robots Have Free Will?

[16] “Free Will—Even for Robots”. John McCarthy. Available at http://www-formal.Stanford.edu/jmc/freewill/freewill.html.

How to Build Your Own Working Robot Pet. Frank Dacosta. Tab Books,
Blue Ridge Summit, PA, 1979.

The Religious Life of Robots

[17] “Anne Foerst’s Home Page”. Available at http://web.sbu.edu/cs/afoerst/.

[18] “‘Cog’, A Humanoid Robot and the Question of Imago Dei”. Anne Foerst.
Zygon: Journal for Religion and Science, vol. 33, 1998, pp.
91–111.

[19] “Should I Baptize my Robot?: What Interviews with Some Prominent
Scientists Reveal About the Spiritual Quest”. Norris Palmer. Center for
Theology and Natural Sciences Bulletin, vol. 17, no. 4, Fall
1997, pp. 13–23.

[20] “Neural Basis of Religious Experience”. Vilayanur Ramachandran, William
Hirstein, Kathleen Armel, Evelyn Tecoma and Vincent Iragui. Society for
Neuroscience Conference Abstracts, 1997, p. 1316.

[21] “‘God Spot’ is Found in Brain”. Steve Connor. Los Angeles
Times, 29 October 1997.

[22] “Arguments Against Strong AI”. Edmund Furse. Available at http://www.comp.glam.ac.uk/pages/staff/efurse/Theology-of-Robots/Arguments-Against.html.

[23] “The Religious Life of Robots”. Edmund Furse. Available at http://www.comp.glam.ac.uk/pages/staff/efurse/Theology-of-Robots/Religious-life.html.

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Chapter 13: Robot Rights and Ethics

The Rights of Robots

[1] “Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects”.
Christopher Stone. Southern California Law Review, vol. 45, 1972,
p. 450.

Should Robots have Civil and Legal Rights?

[2] “Saving Machines from Themselves. The Ethics of Deep Self-Modification”.
Peter Suber. In Essays on Self-Modifying Media. Available at http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/selfmod.htm.

The Legal Rights of Robots

[3] “Frankenstein Unbound: Towards a Legal Definition of Artificial
Intelligence”. Sam Lehman-Wilzig. Futures, December 1981,
pp. 442–457.

[4] “Can a Computer be an ‘Author’ or an ‘Inventor’?” Karl Milde, Jr.
Journal of the Patent Office Society, vol. 51, no. 6. 06/69,
p. 378.

[5] “The Legal Rights of Robots”. Robert Freitas, Jr. Student
Lawyer, vol. 13, January 1985, pp. 54–56. A later draft is
available at http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/LegalRightsOfRobots.htm.

[6] “Biocyberethics: Should We Stop a Company from Unplugging an Intelligent
Computer?” Martine Rothblatt. Available at http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0594.html?printable=1.

“The Rights of Robots: Technology, Culture and Law in the 21st Century”. Phil
Mcnally and Sohail Inayatullah. Originally published in World Peace Through
Law Center: Law and Technology, Winter 1987. Also published in
Futures, vol. 20, no. 2, 1988, pp. 119–136. Also
available at http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0265.html?printable=1.

Robot Ethics

[7] “What is Computer Ethics?” James Moor. First appeared in Computers
and Ethics (A special issue of the journal Metaphilosophy), (Ed.)
Terrell Ward Bynum, Blackwell, Oxford, U.K., 1985, pp. 266–275.

Should Humans Create Robots?

[8] “Moral and Social Issues”. Edmund Furse. Available at http://www.comp.glam.ac.uk/pages/staff/efurse/Theology-of-Robots/Moral-Issues.html.

Should We Be Afraid of Robots?

[9] “Misuse of Science”. Background Paper of Working Group 6, 50th
Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs (“Eliminating The Causes Of
War”). Jospeh Rotblat, Matthew Meselson, Ralph Benjamin, Ana Maria Cetto and
Michael Atiyah, Queen’s College, Cambridge, 3–8 August 2000, pp. 139–173.
Available at http://www.pugwash.org/reports/rc/Papers_2-3.pdf.

[10] “Humanoid Robotics: Ethical Considerations”. David Bruemmer. Available
at http://www.inel.gov/adaptiverobotics/humanoidrobotics/ethicalconsiderations.shtml.

[11] “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us”. Bill Joy. Wired, vol. 8,
no. 4, April 2000, pp. 238–262.

“Promise and Peril”. Ray Kurzweil. Interactive Week, 23 October
2000. Reproduced at http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0156.html?printable=1.

[12] “Embrace, Don't Relinquish, the Future”. Max More. Available at http://www.extropy.org/, 7 May 2000, and at
http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0106.html?printable=1.

[13] “Rise of the Machines”. James Pethokoukis. US News, 22 April
2004.

[14] “Computer Ethics”. Terrell Bynam. Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Available at http://plato.stanford.edu/.

Things that Robots Should Not Be Allowed to Do

[15] “Make Robots Not War: Some Scientists Refuse to Get Paid for Killer
Ideas”. Erik Baard. The Village Voice, 10–16 September 2003. Available
at http://www.villagevoice.com/issues/0337/baard.php.

[16] Brighter Than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic
Scientists. Robert Jungk. Harvest/HBJ Books, New York, 1970.

Are There Decisions Robots Should Not Make?

[17] Computer Power and Human Reason. Joseph Weizenbaum. W. H.
Freeman and Company, New York, 1976.

[18] “Are There Decisions Computers Should Not Make?” James Moor. Nature
and System, vol. 1, 1979, pp. 217–229.

A Code of Ethics for Robots

[19] “Super-Intelligent Machines.” Bill Hibbard. Computer Graphics,
vol. 35, no. 1, 2001, pp. 11–13.

Brain Augmentation

[20] “Cyborg Morals, Cyborg Values, Cyborg Ethics”. Kevin Warwick. Ethics
and Information Technology, vol. 5, 2003, pp. 131–137.

How to Treat Your Robot

[21] Richard Laing, quoted by Robert Freitas, Jr., in “The Legal Rights of
Robots”, Student Lawyer, vol. 13, January 1985,
pp. 54–56.

[22] “The Civil Rights of Robots”. Paul Levinson. Bestseller: Wired,
Analog, and Digital Writings, Mill Valley, CA, 1999,
pp. 247–251. Adapted from an earlier, shorter piece in Shift, June
1998, p. 30.

[23] “Just Another Artefact: Ethics and the Empirical Experience of AI”.
Joanna Bryson and Phil Kime. In Proceedings of the 15th International
Congress on Cybernetics, International Association for Cybernetics, Namur,
Belgium, 1998, pp. 385–390.

Who is Responsible When Robots Do Good and Evil?

[24] “On the Morality of Artificial Agents”. Luciano Floridi and Jeff
Sanders. In Conference on Computer Ethics: Philosophical
Enquiries—IT and the Body, University of Lancaster, 14–16 December 2001.
Available at http://www.wolfson.ox.ac.uk/~floridi/pdf/maa.pdf.

“Frankenstein Unbound: Towards a Legal Definition of Artificial
Intelligence”. Sam Lehman-Wilzig. Futures, December 1981,
pp. 442–457.

Persuasive Technology

“Silicon Sycophants: The Effects of Computers that Flatter”. B. J. Fogg and
Clifford Nass. Journal of Human-Computer Studies, vol. 46, 1997,
pp. 551–561.

[25] “Towards an Ethics of Persuasive Technology”. Daniel Berdichevsky and
Eric Neuenschwander. Communications of the ACM, vol. 42,
no. 5, May 1999, pp. 51–58.

Should We Create Self-Reproducing Intelligent Robots?

[26] “Consciousness in Meme Machines”. Susan Blackmore. Journal
of Consciousness Studies, vol. 10, nos. 4–5, 2003,
pp. 19–30.

[27] Erewhon. Samuel Butler. Trübner and Co., London, 1872. Second
edition, 1901. Available at http://www.hoboes.com/html/FireBlade/Butler/Erewhon/.

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